Direct built environment

Exposure is an architectural or indoor-environment variable in a real or simulated built setting

how to use it:Shortest inferential path to design

ND-0001 · 2021 · Systematic review
High Direct built environment
How indoor environmental quality affects occupants' cognitive functions: A systematic review
Wang et al. Building and Environment
Poorer indoor conditions were often associated with poorer cognitive performance, but effects varied by factor, task and study design.
ND-0002 · 2026 · Systematic review
High Direct built environment
Indoor environmental quality and the brain: A systematic review of physiological and neural evidence
Authors per journal record. Building and Environment
Visual and thermal conditions showed the most consistent relationships with neural and physiological signals across the reviewed evidence.
ND-0003 · 2023 · Systematic review and meta-analysis
High Direct built environment
Short-term exposure to indoor carbon dioxide and cognitive task performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Authors per journal record. Building and Environment
Short-term CO2 exposures below 5000 ppm were associated with cognitive effects in the pooled literature, with complex tasks appearing more sensitive.
ND-0004 · 2012 · Controlled exposure study
Moderate-high Direct built environment
Is CO2 an Indoor Pollutant? Direct Effects of Low-to-Moderate CO2 Concentrations on Human Decision-Making Performance
Satish et al. Environmental Health Perspectives
Decision-making scores declined at higher CO2 exposures in several domains, with larger effects at 2500 ppm.
ND-0005 · 2016 · Controlled crossover study
Moderate-high Direct built environment
Associations of Cognitive Function Scores with Carbon Dioxide, Ventilation, and Volatile Organic Compound Exposures in Office Workers
Allen et al. Environmental Health Perspectives
Cognitive scores were higher under lower-VOC and higher-ventilation conditions than under conventional office conditions.
ND-0006 · 2017 · Review
High Direct built environment
Ten questions concerning thermal and indoor air quality effects on the performance of office work and schoolwork
Wargocki & Wyon. Building and Environment
Synthesizes evidence that temperature and air quality can influence work and school performance, with effects dependent on task and exposure.
ND-0007 · 2013 · Experimental study
Moderate Direct built environment
Influence of indoor air temperature on human thermal comfort, motivation and performance
Cui et al. Building and Environment
Performance and motivation varied across tested temperatures; the warmest conditions were detrimental and motivation appeared to mediate part of the effect.
ND-0008 · 2010 · Experimental study
Moderate Direct built environment
The effects of air temperature on office workers' well-being, workload and productivity-evaluated with subjective ratings
Lan, Lian & Pan. Applied Ergonomics
Temperature altered subjective workload and well-being, with physiological measures including HRV and EEG used alongside performance outcomes.
ND-0009 · 2021 · Meta-analysis
High Direct built environment
Meta-analysis of 35 studies examining the effect of indoor temperature on office work performance
Porras-Salazar et al. Building and Environment
The pooled evidence did not support a simple robust universal relationship between temperature and office work performance.
ND-0010 · 2025 · Meta-analysis
High Direct built environment
The effects of temperature on work performance in the typical office environment: A meta-analysis of current evidence
Authors per journal record. Building and Environment
Temperatures above about 25 °C tended to worsen accuracy or response time in some conditions, especially longer exposures and skilled tasks; moderately cooler conditions were less consistently harmful.
ND-0011 · 2019 · Review
High Direct built environment
Effects of moderate thermal environments on cognitive performance: A multidisciplinary review
Authors per journal record. Applied Energy
The review supports nonlinear relationships between thermal conditions and cognitive performance rather than a simple monotonic effect.
ND-0012 · 2018 · Review
High Direct built environment
A review of the environmental parameters necessary for an optimal sleep environment
Authors per journal record. Building and Environment
Noise, temperature, light and air quality each have plausible and documented effects on sleep quality and continuity.
ND-0014 · 2017 · Review
High Direct built environment
Thermal environment and sleep quality: A review
Lan, Tsuzuki, Liu & Lian. Energy and Buildings
Moderate heat or cold can reduce sleep quality; control of the bed micro-environment may offer a lower-energy route to comfort.
ND-0015 · 2024 · Review
High Direct built environment
Optimizing bedroom thermal environment: A review of human body temperature, sleeping thermal comfort and sleep quality
Authors per journal record. Energy and Built Environment
Body-temperature distribution provides a useful bridge between thermal comfort and sleep quality, which are related but not interchangeable.
ND-0016 · 2025 · Review
High Direct built environment
How do we create a healthier thermal environment for sleep? A review of sleep thermal comfort and sleep quality
Authors per journal record. Building and Environment
Thermal needs vary between and within people; pre-sleep adjustment alone may not meet overnight sleep and comfort needs.
ND-0017 · 2026 · Experimental study
Moderate-high Direct built environment
Multimodal evidence of temperature and sex effects on sleep: sleep physiology, sleep quality, and next-day performance
Authors per journal record. Building and Environment
Warmer nights reduced sleep continuity and efficiency; autonomic and next-day outcomes differed across temperatures and by sex.
ND-0018 · 2025 · Narrative review
Moderate-high Direct built environment
Dreamy Dwellings: How the Sleep Environment Affects Sleep Health in Adults
Gregory D. M. Potter. Lifestyle Medicine
Reviews multiple environmental inputs that can alter sleep, including sensory, thermal and social factors.
ND-0019 · 2011 · Experimental study
Moderate-high Direct built environment
Open-plan office noise: Cognitive performance and restoration
Jahncke et al. Journal of Environmental Psychology
Higher office noise impaired word memory and increased tiredness; restorative content after exposure helped recover perceived energy.
ND-0021 · 2020 · Meta-analysis / synthesis
High Direct built environment
The relation between intelligibility of irrelevant speech and cognitive performance: a revised model
Haapakangas et al. Indoor Air
Performance declines became more likely as irrelevant speech became more intelligible; verbal short-term memory was especially sensitive.
ND-0022 · 2020 · Experimental study
Moderate Direct built environment
Irrelevant speech effect in open-plan offices: A laboratory study
Kostallari et al. Applied Acoustics
Irrelevant speech degraded aspects of cognitive task performance in an office-like context.
ND-0025 · 2022 · Review
High Direct built environment
Classroom acoustics and cognition: review of the effects of noise and reverberation on primary school children
Mealings. Building Acoustics
Noise and reverberation can impair speech perception, memory, attention and learning, with children especially vulnerable.
ND-0026 · 2022 · Review
High Direct built environment
Acoustical parameters for learning in classroom: A review
Authors per journal record. Building and Environment
Classroom acoustic parameters are linked to speech intelligibility and learning-relevant outcomes.
ND-0031 · 1984 · Comparative hospital study
Moderate Direct built environment
View through a window may influence recovery from surgery
Roger S. Ulrich. Science
Patients with a tree view had shorter postoperative stays, fewer negative nurse notes and used fewer strong analgesics than matched patients facing a brick wall.
ND-0033 · 2022 · Systematic review and meta-analysis
High Direct built environment
Effects of Indoor Plants on Human Functions: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analyses
Han, Ruan & Liao. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
The review generally favored plant presence for objective human-function outcomes, with significant pooled effects for some outcomes but limited studies per meta-analysis.
ND-0034 · 2020 · Systematic review
High Direct built environment
A systematic review and conceptual framework of biophilic design parameters in clinical environments
Authors per journal record. Healthcare / built environment literature
Different user groups appeared to value different biophilic parameters, including daylight, views, natural content, refuge and environmental comfort.
ND-0035 · 2024 · Systematic review
High Direct built environment
Biophilic design in healthcare: a systematic review of health and wellbeing outcomes
Al Khatib, Samara & Ndiaye. Frontiers in Built Environment
The review links biophilic interventions with reduced stress, anxiety and pain and with some recovery-related outcomes, while evidence strength varies.
ND-0036 · 2025 · Systematic review / bibliometric review
High Direct built environment
Biophilic Design in the Built Environment: Trends, Gaps and Future Directions
Authors per journal record. Buildings
Maps a rapidly growing biophilic-design literature and identifies uneven evidence across interventions and outcomes.
ND-0038 · 2014 · Case-control pilot study
Moderate Direct built environment
Impact of Windows and Daylight Exposure on Overall Health and Sleep Quality of Office Workers
Boubekri et al. Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine
Workers with more window/daylight exposure reported better sleep and wellbeing and had longer sleep duration in actigraphy analyses.
ND-0040 · 2026 · Descriptive field study
Emerging Direct built environment
Sleep and light ecologies of parents with young infants: descriptive findings from the SUNSHINE project
Authors per journal record. npj Biological Timing and Sleep
Documents real-world light and sleep patterns in a population with fragmented sleep and distinctive household routines.
ND-0041 · 2022 · Scoping review
High Direct built environment
Implications of neuroarchitecture for the experience of the built environment: a scoping review
Lee et al. Architectural Engineering and Design Management
The field is promising but small, methodologically diverse and concentrated in selected environmental attributes.
ND-0042 · 2026 · Systematic review
High Direct built environment
A comprehensive review of neuroarchitecture measurement tools and methods
Authors per journal record. Building and Environment
EEG dominates the field; affect is studied more often than cognition or decision-making; multimodal standardization remains limited.
ND-0043 · 2026 · Systematic mapping review
High Direct built environment
Toward Evidence-Based Neuroarchitecture: A Systematic Mapping and Framework for Immersive Spatial Cognition
Authors per journal record. Frontiers in Psychology
Maps the human empirical field and shows frequent reliance on questionnaires, behavior and EEG, with lower use of HRV, fMRI and fNIRS.
ND-0044 · 2021 · Systematic review
High Direct built environment
The Cognitive-Emotional Design and Study of Architectural Space: A Scoping Review of Neuroarchitecture and Its Precursor Approaches
Higuera-Trujillo, Llinares & Macagno. Sensors
Synthesizes neuroarchitecture with earlier environmental-psychology and psychophysiology approaches.
ND-0045 · 2020 · Systematic review
High Direct built environment
Exploring the influence of the built environment on human experience through a neuroscience approach: A systematic review
Authors per journal record. Frontiers of Architectural Research
The review identified growing use of neuroscience methods but substantial gaps in sample size, ecological validity and reproducibility.
ND-0046 · 2023 · Systematic review
Moderate-high Direct built environment
Designing for human wellbeing: The integration of neuroarchitecture in design - A systematic review
Authors per journal record. Ain Shams Engineering Journal
Summarizes applications of neuroarchitecture to wellbeing and design practice while highlighting methodological fragmentation.
ND-0047 · 2023 · Systematic review
High Direct built environment
Exploring Methodological Approaches of Experimental Studies in the Field of Neuroarchitecture: A Systematic Review
Naghibi Rad et al. HERD
Reviews 28 experimental studies and documents recurring methodological choices and weaknesses.
ND-0048 · 2024 · Systematic review
High Direct built environment
Virtual reality and electroencephalography in architectural design: A systematic review of empirical studies
Taherysayah, Malathouni, Liang & Westermann. Journal of Building Engineering
All reviewed studies reported environmental effects on some physiological, psychological or cognitive measures, but methods were too diverse for specific universal design rules.
ND-0049 · 2017 · Experimental study
Moderate Direct built environment
Walking through Architectural Spaces: The Impact of Interior Forms on Human Brain Dynamics
Djebbara et al. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience
Brain dynamics changed as participants moved through different interior forms, supporting an embodied rather than purely visual account of architectural experience.
ND-0050 · 2021 · Experimental study
Moderate Direct built environment
Effects of Changes to Architectural Elements on Human Relaxation-Arousal Responses: Based on VR and EEG
Kim et al. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
Changes to room proportions, ceiling height and window ratio produced differences in EEG-derived relaxation-arousal indices.
ND-0051 · 2020 · Experimental study
Moderate Direct built environment
Building environment information and human perceptual feedback collected through a combined virtual reality and electroencephalogram method
Li et al. Energy and Buildings
The study linked environmental information, subjective perception, EEG activity and work efficiency in a controlled virtual framework.
ND-0053 · 2021 · Doctoral thesis
Foundational Direct built environment
NeuroArquitectura: nuevas métricas para el diseño arquitectónico a través del uso de neurotecnologías
Juan Luis Higuera Trujillo. Universitat Politècnica de València
Develops measurement approaches for using neurotechnology to evaluate architectural experience.
ND-0054 · 2023 · Doctoral thesis
Moderate Direct built environment
The processing of emotional body expressions within architectural experience: electroencephalography and eye-tracking studies in virtual reality
Author per University of Parma repository. University of Parma
Architectural experience modulated neural and visual processing of emotional body expressions in social scenarios.
ND-0055 · 2013 · fMRI experiment
Moderate-high Direct built environment
Impact of contour on aesthetic judgments and approach-avoidance decisions in architecture
Vartanian et al. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
Curvilinear interiors were more often rated beautiful and recruited anterior cingulate activity during beauty judgments; contour did not significantly alter approach-avoidance decisions.
ND-0057 · 2007 · Behavioral experiment
Moderate-high Direct built environment
The Influence of Ceiling Height: The Effect of Priming on the Type of Processing That People Use
Joan Meyers-Levy & Rui Zhu. Journal of Consumer Research
Higher ceilings were associated with freedom-related concepts and more relational or abstract processing; lower ceilings with more confined concepts and item-specific processing.
ND-0058 · 2016 · Meta-analysis
High Direct built environment
Evidence for prospect-refuge theory: a meta-analysis of the findings of environmental preference research
Authors per journal record. City, Territory and Architecture
Prospect received more consistent support than refuge in interior and urban studies; evidence for complexity was mixed but often positive; mystery was less consistently supported.
ND-0059 · 2004 · Meta-analysis
High Direct built environment
Mystery, complexity, legibility and coherence: A meta-analysis
Authors per journal record. Journal of Environmental Psychology
Across the literature, relationships between preference and classic information variables were heterogeneous and often not reproducible.
ND-0060 · 1993 · Behavioral study
Moderate Direct built environment
Visual Attributes Related to Preference in Interior Environments
Suzanne C. Scott. Journal of Interior Design
Preference clustered around recurring visual attributes of interiors, supporting links between aesthetic evaluation and information needs.
ND-0061 · 2021 · Behavioral study
Moderate-high Direct built environment
Individual differences in preference for architectural interiors
Authors per journal record. Journal of Environmental Psychology
Coherence predicted preference across groups, while the contribution of fascination and hominess differed by population.
ND-0063 · 2020 · Human VR experiment
Moderate-high Direct built environment
Deforming the metric of cognitive maps distorts memory
Authors per journal record. Nature Human Behaviour
Spatial memory and distance judgments were systematically distorted in deformed geometry, consistent with geometry-dependent cognitive maps.
ND-0072 · 2021 · Systematic review
High Direct built environment
A Comparison of Psychological and Work Outcomes in Open-Plan and Cellular Office Designs: A Systematic Review
James, Delfabbro & King. SAGE Open
Open-plan offices were more often associated with poorer health, satisfaction and productivity-related outcomes, with noise and privacy recurring as major issues.
ND-0073 · 2005 · Systematic review
High Direct built environment
The effect of office concepts on worker health and performance: a systematic review of the literature
de Croon et al. Ergonomics / Occupational literature
Strong evidence linked open workplaces with reduced privacy and job satisfaction; limited evidence linked openness and close workstation distance with higher cognitive workload.
ND-0074 · 2013 · Field survey analysis
Moderate-high Direct built environment
Workspace satisfaction: The privacy-communication trade-off in open-plan offices
Kim & de Dear. Journal of Environmental Psychology
Noise and loss of privacy were major sources of dissatisfaction, and perceived communication benefits did not offset them in more open layouts.
ND-0075 · 2023 · Systematic review
High Direct built environment
Association between perceived indoor environmental characteristics and occupants' mental well-being, cognitive performance, productivity, satisfaction in workplaces
Authors per journal record. Building and Environment
Indoor climate, space/furniture/privacy and naturalness had the strongest evidence links to wellbeing, productivity and satisfaction; cognitive-performance evidence was less consistent.
ND-0076 · 2021 · Systematic review
High Direct built environment
Office spatial design attributes, sitting, and face-to-face interactions: Systematic review and research agenda
Authors per journal record. Building and Environment
Greater worker visibility was associated with shorter sitting bouts, and proximity was associated with more or longer face-to-face interactions.
ND-0077 · 2008 · Systematic review
High Direct built environment
A Review of the Research Literature on Evidence-Based Healthcare Design
Ulrich et al. HERD
The review found design-relevant evidence across infection control, acoustics, nature/daylight, ergonomics, room type and layout, while quality varied by topic.
ND-0078 · 2007 · Literature review
High Direct built environment
Do patients in hospitals benefit from single rooms? A literature review
Authors per journal record. Health Policy
Single rooms showed moderate benefits for satisfaction, sleep/noise and privacy/dignity; infection evidence was conflicting and recovery evidence limited.
ND-0079 · 2018 · Systematic review
High Direct built environment
Single-Occupancy Patient Rooms: A Systematic Review of the Literature Since 2006
Taylor, Card & Piatkowski. HERD
Most studies reported at least some advantages of single rooms, with stronger evidence for communication, infection control, noise/sleep and preference, but trade-offs remained.
ND-0080 · 2023 · Systematic review and narrative synthesis
High Direct built environment
Clinical, humanistic and economic outcomes associated with single rooms compared with shared accommodation for acute hospital admissions
Authors per BMJ Open record. BMJ Open
Patients often preferred single rooms for privacy and shared rooms for social interaction; sleep perceptions often favored single rooms while objective noise differences were less consistent.
ND-0081 · 2026 · Systematic review
High Direct built environment
Psychophysiological responses to indoor wood use: A systematic literature review of indicators, methods, and research trends
Authors per journal record. Building and Environment
Visual wood exposure is the most studied modality, with heart rate and prefrontal measures common; the field needs longer exposures and more diverse samples.
ND-0082 · 2026 · Systematic review
High Direct built environment
Effect of Wood Indoor Environments on Human Psychophysiological Responses and Evaluation Indicators: A Review
Authors per journal record. Journal of the Korean Wood Science and Technology
Across 24 selected experiments, wood exposure generally tended toward more favorable psychological and physiological responses.
ND-0083 · 2019 · Experimental study
Moderate Direct built environment
Physiological effects of visual stimulation with full-scale wall images composed of vertically and horizontally arranged wooden elements
Nakamura, Ikei & Miyazaki. Journal of Wood Science
Wooden-wall images reduced prefrontal oxyhemoglobin relative to a gray control and improved several subjective mood impressions; vertical and horizontal arrangements differed.
ND-0084 · 2024 · Experimental study
Moderate Direct built environment
Multisensory nature exposure in the workplace: Exploring the restorative benefits of smell experiences
Yildirim, Globa, Gocer & Brambilla. Building and Environment
A multisensory biophilic workplace condition improved stress, mood and cognitive outcomes relative to a non-biophilic condition; olfactory pleasantness contributed to restoration.
ND-0085 · 2024 · Experimental study
Moderate Direct built environment
Beyond sight: Comparing traditional virtual reality and immersive multi-sensory environments in stress reduction of university students
Baktash, Kim & Shirazi. Frontiers in Virtual Reality
Both immersive conditions reduced anxiety; the multisensory condition showed a larger reduction trend, though the between-group difference was not statistically decisive.
ND-0105 · 2026 · Systematic review
High Direct built environment
The effects of interior design on users' psychological health under isolated, confined, and extreme environments: A systematic review
Authors per journal record. Journal of Environmental Psychology
Identifies recurring interior-design elements associated with psychological outcomes under unusually constrained conditions.
ND-0106 · 2021 · Review
High Direct built environment
The neuroaesthetics of architectural spaces
Chatterjee, Coburn & Weinberger. Cognitive Processing
Synthesizes how architectural spaces may engage sensory-motor, emotion-valuation and meaning-knowledge systems.
ND-0108 · 2018 · Conference paper
Emerging Direct built environment
Comparison of reality and virtual reality spatial electroencephalogram measurement data
Kim, Chang & Jun. Architectural Institute of Korea Conference Proceedings
Reported no meaningful difference in the EEG implementation of matched real and virtual spatial conditions in the studied setup.
ND-0109 · 2026 · Systematic review
High Direct built environment
Neuroscience-informed approaches in architectural design: a systematic review of cognitive measures and interactive technologies from an HCI perspective
Authors per journal record. Frontiers in Computer Science
Maps how cognitive measures and interactive technologies are being used to inform architectural design.
ND-0110 · 2026 · Systematic review
High Direct built environment
A review of biophilic architectural design strategies on psychological and physiological health
Authors per journal record. Discover Environment
Synthesizes a large multidisciplinary evidence base spanning empirical studies, theory, cases and meta-analyses.
ND-0111 · 2022 · Critical review
High Direct built environment
Biophilic design in architecture and its contributions to health, well-being, and sustainability: A critical review
Authors per journal record. Frontiers of Architectural Research
Reviews proposed health and wellbeing benefits of biophilic architecture while examining gaps in evidence and application.
ND-0117 · 2005 · Field / psychophysiological experiment
Moderate Direct built environment
Human Response to Window Views and Indoor Plants in the Workplace
Chang & Chen. HortScience
Nature views and indoor plants were associated with lower tension or anxiety across several conditions compared with no-view/no-plant settings.
ND-0119 · 2002 · Technical report
Moderate-high Direct built environment
Open-plan office density and environmental satisfaction
Duval, Charles & Veitch. National Research Council Canada
Reviews evidence that open-plan density can affect environmental satisfaction and related perceptions.
ND-0120 · 2022 · Systematic literature review
High Direct built environment
Methodological considerations in the open-plan office paradox
Authors per journal record. Work
Findings on open-plan outcomes depend partly on which variables and methods researchers choose, explaining some apparent contradictions.
ND-0121 · 2023 · Systematic review
High Direct built environment
The effects of activity-based workplaces on contributors to organizational productivity
Authors per journal record. Journal of Environmental Psychology
Activity-based workplaces can support some productivity contributors but focus and task-space fit remain recurring challenges.